A writing reference

The Elements of Style

Forty-three rules for clear writing, each explained in plain words with examples. Based on William Strunk Jr.’s handbook, written for a high-school writer.

Look it upSearch the rules, open the examples, save the ones you keep breaking. PracticePick the better sentence or name the rule. Score keeps count. Before you turn it inPaste your draft. The checker marks what to cut and what to rewrite.

Rules

Chapter I

Elementary Rules of Usage

The mechanics: punctuation, agreement, and where a sentence begins and ends. Get these right and the reader never trips.

Usage 1

Form the possessive singular of nouns by adding ’s

Add ’s to a singular noun to show ownership, even when the noun already ends in s. A plural noun that ends in s takes only the apostrophe. The exceptions are a few ancient names (Jesus’, Moses’) and fixed phrases like “for conscience’ sake.”

Examples (3)
  1. Before

    Charles’ locker is next to mine.

    After

    Charles’s locker is next to mine.

    Why: A singular name that ends in s still takes ’s.

  2. Before

    The bus’ brakes squealed at every stop.

    After

    The bus’s brakes squealed at every stop.

    Why: “Bus” is singular, so it gets ’s.

  3. Before

    The Smiths’s dog dug up our garden.

    After

    The Smiths’ dog dug up our garden.

    Why: “Smiths” is plural. Plural nouns ending in s take only the apostrophe.

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Usage 2

In a series of three or more, put a comma after every item except the last

In a list of three or more things, put a comma before the final “and” or “or.” That last comma (the serial comma) keeps the last two items from reading as one.

Examples (3)
  1. Before

    Pack a pencil, a calculator and your ID.

    After

    Pack a pencil, a calculator, and your ID.

    Why: Three items, so a comma goes before “and.”

  2. Before

    I want to thank my parents, Coach Ramirez and Ms. Lee.

    After

    I want to thank my parents, Coach Ramirez, and Ms. Lee.

    Why: Without the last comma, the sentence can be read as if your parents are Coach Ramirez and Ms. Lee.

  3. Before

    The lab requires goggles, gloves, an apron and closed shoes.

    After

    The lab requires goggles, gloves, an apron, and closed shoes.

    Why: Every item in the series gets a comma, including the one before “and.”

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Usage 3

Enclose parenthetic expressions between commas

A parenthetic expression is a word or phrase that interrupts the sentence to add information you could leave out. Put a comma on both sides of it, never on just one. If the phrase is needed to say which thing you mean, it is not parenthetic, and it gets no commas.

Examples (3)
  1. Before

    My brother, who just got his license drives everywhere now.

    After

    My brother, who just got his license, drives everywhere now.

    Why: One comma alone is always wrong. The interruption needs a comma at each end.

  2. Before

    The final exam which counts for 30 percent of the grade is on Friday.

    After

    The final exam, which counts for 30 percent of the grade, is on Friday.

    Why: The middle phrase adds information. Set it off with a pair of commas.

  3. Before

    The students, who skipped the review session, did poorly.

    After

    The students who skipped the review session did poorly.

    Why: Here the clause tells you which students. It is essential, so it gets no commas. With commas, the sentence says every student skipped.

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Usage 4

Place a comma before a conjunction introducing an independent clause

An independent clause is a group of words that could stand alone as a sentence. When “and,” “but,” “or,” “so,” or “for” joins two of them, put a comma before the conjunction. If the second half could not stand alone, leave the comma out.

Examples (3)
  1. Before

    I studied for three hours but I still felt unprepared.

    After

    I studied for three hours, but I still felt unprepared.

    Why: “I still felt unprepared” could be its own sentence, so the comma goes before “but.”

  2. Before

    The game went into overtime so we missed the last bus.

    After

    The game went into overtime, so we missed the last bus.

    Why: Two complete statements joined by “so.” Comma before “so.”

  3. Before

    She opened the book, and started reading.

    After

    She opened the book and started reading.

    Why: “Started reading” cannot stand alone as a sentence, so no comma.

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Usage 5
Start here

Do not join independent clauses with a comma

Two complete sentences cannot be glued together with only a comma. That mistake is called a comma splice. Use a period, a semicolon, or a comma plus a conjunction such as “and” or “but.”

Examples (3)
  1. Before

    The bell rang, everyone rushed to the door.

    After

    The bell rang, and everyone rushed to the door.

    Why: Adding “and” after the comma makes the join legal. A period would also work.

  2. Before

    Macbeth wants the crown, he is afraid to take it.

    After

    Macbeth wants the crown; he is afraid to take it.

    Why: A semicolon joins two complete sentences that belong together.

  3. Before

    I didn’t finish the reading, however, I skimmed the summary.

    After

    I didn’t finish the reading; however, I skimmed the summary.

    Why: “However” is not a conjunction like “but.” A comma before it cannot join two sentences; a semicolon can.

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Usage 6

Do not break sentences in two

A period ends a complete sentence. A piece of a sentence, such as a phrase or a clause that starts with “which” or “because,” cannot stand alone. Attach the piece to the sentence it belongs to.

Examples (3)
  1. Before

    I stayed up until two finishing the essay. Which was due first period.

    After

    I stayed up until two finishing the essay, which was due first period.

    Why: “Which was due first period” has no subject of its own. It belongs to the sentence before it.

  2. Before

    We lost the match. Because our goalie was out sick.

    After

    We lost the match because our goalie was out sick.

    Why: A “because” clause explains a sentence; it cannot be one.

  3. Before

    Scout learns a hard lesson. Understanding her neighbor for the first time.

    After

    Scout learns a hard lesson when she understands her neighbor for the first time.

    Why: The second piece is a fragment. Fold it into the sentence.

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Usage 7

Use a colon after an independent clause to introduce a list, an appositive, an amplification, or a quotation

The words before a colon must form a complete sentence. The colon then says: here comes what I promised. An appositive is a noun that renames the one before it; an amplification is a restatement with more detail.

Examples (3)
  1. Before

    For the trip you need: a sleeping bag, a flashlight, and rain gear.

    After

    For the trip you need three things: a sleeping bag, a flashlight, and rain gear.

    Why: “For the trip you need” is not a complete sentence, so it cannot take a colon. “You need three things” is.

  2. Before

    There was only one explanation for the empty fridge, my brother.

    After

    There was only one explanation for the empty fridge: my brother.

    Why: The colon introduces the appositive that names the explanation.

  3. Before

    Coach kept repeating the same advice, and it was that we should keep our eyes up.

    After

    Coach kept repeating the same advice: keep your eyes up.

    Why: A colon delivers the advice directly.

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Usage 8

Use a dash to set off an abrupt break or interruption, or to announce a long appositive or summary

A dash is stronger than a comma and less formal than a colon. Use it when the sentence changes direction suddenly, or to gather up a list and sum it up. Use it rarely. Many dashes make writing feel breathless.

Examples (3)
  1. Before

    I finally found my phone, in the freezer, next to the waffles.

    After

    I finally found my phone—in the freezer, next to the waffles.

    Why: The dash marks the surprise turn.

  2. Before

    Speed, accuracy, and stamina, these are what a good typist needs.

    After

    Speed, accuracy, and stamina—these are what a good typist needs.

    Why: The dash announces the summary of the list.

  3. Before

    The test—which I studied for—was—somehow—harder than I expected.

    After

    The test, which I studied for, was somehow harder than I expected.

    Why: Four dashes in one sentence. Commas do this job; save the dash for a real break.

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Usage 9

The number of the subject determines the number of the verb

A singular subject takes a singular verb, and a plural subject takes a plural verb. Words that come between the subject and the verb do not change this. Find the real subject first.

Examples (3)
  1. Before

    The list of supplies are on the counter.

    After

    The list of supplies is on the counter.

    Why: The subject is “list,” not “supplies.”

  2. Before

    Each of the players have a locker.

    After

    Each of the players has a locker.

    Why: “Each” is singular.

  3. Before

    The coach, along with the assistants, were late.

    After

    The coach, along with the assistants, was late.

    Why: “Along with the assistants” is a parenthetic phrase. The subject is still “coach.”

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Usage 10

Use the proper case of pronoun

Pronouns change form depending on their job. I, he, she, we, and they do the action. Me, him, her, us, and them receive it. To test a pair like “Sam and I,” drop the other person and see which form sounds right on its own.

Examples (3)
  1. Before

    Me and Jordan are going to the game.

    After

    Jordan and I are going to the game.

    Why: Test: “I am going to the game,” not “Me am going.”

  2. Before

    The teacher gave extra credit to Aisha and I.

    After

    The teacher gave extra credit to Aisha and me.

    Why: Test: “gave extra credit to me.”

  3. Before

    Between you and I, the ending was disappointing.

    After

    Between you and me, the ending was disappointing.

    Why: “Between” is a preposition. It always takes the object form: me, him, her, us, them.

Practice this rule →
Usage 11
Start here

A participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence must refer to the grammatical subject

A participial phrase is an -ing or -ed phrase that describes something (“Walking home,” “Written in 1813”). When it opens a sentence, the very next noun is the thing it describes. If that noun is the wrong thing, the phrase dangles and the sentence says something silly.

Examples (3)
  1. Before

    Walking into the cafeteria, the smell of pizza hit me.

    After

    Walking into the cafeteria, I smelled pizza.

    Why: The smell was not walking. Put the walker right after the comma.

  2. Before

    After studying all weekend, the test seemed easy.

    After

    After studying all weekend, I found the test easy.

    Why: The test did not study.

  3. Before

    Written in 1813, Jane Austen explores class and marriage in the novel.

    After

    Written in 1813, the novel explores class and marriage.

    Why: Austen was not written in 1813. The novel was.

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Chapter II

Elementary Principles of Composition

How sentences and paragraphs are built. These eleven principles do most of the work in a school essay.

Composition 1

Choose a suitable design and hold to it

Before you write, decide the shape of the piece: what comes first, what comes last, and what each part does. The plan can change while you write, but you should always have one.

Examples (3)
  1. Before

    An essay that opens with a thesis about symbolism, drifts into a plot summary, and ends with an opinion about the movie version.

    After

    An essay that states the thesis, gives one symbol per paragraph, and ends by returning to the thesis.

    Why: Same material, but the second essay has a shape the reader can follow.

  2. Before

    A lab report that mixes results into the procedure section and repeats the purpose in the conclusion.

    After

    Purpose, materials, procedure, results, conclusion, in that order, each in its own section.

    Why: A design the reader already expects is the easiest design to follow.

  3. Before

    A personal narrative that starts at the ending, jumps to childhood, and then tries to explain the middle.

    After

    One order, chosen on purpose: chronological, or a single flashback framed at the start and the end.

    Why: Jumping around is a choice only if you planned it.

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Composition 2
Start here

Make the paragraph the unit of composition: one paragraph to each topic

Each paragraph handles one idea. Start with a sentence that states the idea, develop it, and stop when the idea is done. Then start a new paragraph for the next idea. Do not chop a single idea into one-sentence paragraphs, and do not let one paragraph run through three ideas.

Examples (3)
  1. Before

    One paragraph that covers the causes of the war, then the major battles, then the peace treaty.

    After

    Three paragraphs: one on causes, one on battles, one on the treaty.

    Why: Three topics, three paragraphs.

  2. Before

    Another thing is that the town also treats Boo Radley badly.

    After

    The town treats Boo Radley as badly as it treats Tom Robinson.

    Why: The first sentence of a paragraph should state its point, not announce that a point is coming.

  3. Before

    Four one-sentence paragraphs: Atticus is calm. He is fair. He is respected. He is a good father.

    After

    One paragraph: Atticus is respected because he is fair, with the evidence for that claim gathered under it.

    Why: One idea, one paragraph. Four one-line paragraphs read like a list, not an argument.

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Composition 3
Start here

Use the active voice

In the active voice, the subject does the action: “The dog chased the ball.” In the passive voice, the subject receives it: “The ball was chased by the dog.” Active is shorter, clearer, and more direct. The passive is fine when the doer is unknown or does not matter (“My bike was stolen”).

Examples (3)
  1. Before

    The winning goal was scored by Maya in the final minute.

    After

    Maya scored the winning goal in the final minute.

    Why: Maya did it. Let her be the subject.

  2. Before

    Mistakes were made during the experiment.

    After

    We made mistakes during the experiment.

    Why: The passive hides who did it. The active owns it.

  3. Before

    It was decided by the committee that the dance would be postponed.

    After

    The committee postponed the dance.

    Why: Twelve words become five, and nothing is lost.

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Composition 4
Start here

Put statements in positive form

Say what something is, not what it is not. A “not” statement is weaker and makes the reader do the flipping. Save “not” for real denial or contrast (“The lab is not optional”).

Examples (3)
  1. Before

    She did not remember to bring the permission slip.

    After

    She forgot the permission slip.

    Why: “Did not remember” is “forgot.”

  2. Before

    Not many students showed up to the meeting.

    After

    Few students showed up to the meeting.

    Why: “Not many” is “few.”

  3. Before

    He did not think that studying with music was a good idea.

    After

    He thought studying with music was a bad idea.

    Why: Move the negative into the word that carries it.

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Composition 5
Start here

Use definite, specific, concrete language

Give the reader something to see, hear, or count. General words (“bad weather,” “a lot of stuff”) blur. Specific words (“sleet,” “forty boxes”) stick.

Examples (3)
  1. Before

    The weather was bad for a long time.

    After

    It rained for nine days straight.

    Why: “Bad” and “a long time” become something the reader can picture and count.

  2. Before

    He was really happy when he saw the roster.

    After

    He read his name on the roster and yelled so loud the hallway went quiet.

    Why: Show the action instead of naming the feeling.

  3. Before

    The character goes through a lot of difficult things in the book.

    After

    In the book, the boy loses his home, his dog, and finally his brother.

    Why: Name the things.

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Composition 6
Start here

Omit needless words

Every word should do a job. Cut phrases that say nothing and expressions that take five words to do the work of one. Short does not mean choppy; it means no waste.

Examples (3)
  1. Before

    Due to the fact that it was raining, practice was canceled.

    After

    Because it was raining, practice was canceled.

    Why: “Due to the fact that” is “because.” Shorter still: “Rain canceled practice.”

  2. Before

    He is a person who never gives up.

    After

    He never gives up.

    Why: “Is a person who” adds nothing.

  3. Before

    In my opinion, I think that the ending of the novel is basically kind of sad.

    After

    The ending of the novel is sad.

    Why: “In my opinion” and “I think” say the same thing, and the reader already knows it is your view. “Basically” and “kind of” weaken “sad.”

Common phrases to cut
the question as to whetherwhether
there is no doubt but thatno doubt
due to the fact thatbecause
in spite of the fact thatalthough
in order toto
at this point in timenow
in the event thatif
has the ability tocan
a large number ofmany
he is a man whohe
in a hasty mannerhastily
the fact that he failedhis failure
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Composition 7

Avoid a succession of loose sentences

A loose sentence is two clauses joined by “and,” “but,” “so,” or “which.” One is fine. A whole paragraph of them sounds like a list of events with no shape. Break some up, make some clauses depend on others, and vary the length.

Examples (3)
  1. Before

    We got to the beach and the parking lot was full, so we drove around, and then we found a spot, but it was far away, and we had to carry everything.

    After

    The beach parking lot was full. After circling twice, we found a spot so far away that we had to carry everything—cooler, chairs, umbrella—half a mile.

    Why: Five “and/so/but” joins become two sentences with different shapes.

  2. Before

    Romeo sees Juliet and he falls in love, and then he goes to her balcony, and they decide to get married, which happens the next day.

    After

    Romeo falls in love with Juliet the moment he sees her. That night, under her balcony, they decide to marry; by the next afternoon, they have.

    Why: The events are the same. The second version tells the reader which ones matter.

  3. Before

    The experiment started and we added the acid, and the solution turned blue, but it was supposed to turn green, so we checked our measurements.

    After

    When we added the acid, the solution turned blue instead of the expected green, so we rechecked our measurements.

    Why: “When” and “instead of” do the work that four conjunctions were doing.

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Composition 8

Express coordinate ideas in similar form

Ideas that are equal in importance should be written in the same grammatical shape. This is called parallel structure. Matching shape tells the reader the ideas match.

Examples (3)
  1. Before

    She likes swimming, to run, and biking.

    After

    She likes swimming, running, and biking.

    Why: Three -ing words. One shape.

  2. Before

    The job requires patience, being organized, and that you can communicate.

    After

    The job requires patience, organization, and communication.

    Why: Three nouns instead of a noun, a phrase, and a clause.

  3. Before

    To do well on the test, you should review your notes, get sleep, and eating a good breakfast helps too.

    After

    To do well on the test, review your notes, get sleep, and eat a good breakfast.

    Why: Three commands in a row.

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Composition 9

Keep related words together

Put words next to the words they belong with. Keep the subject close to its verb. A modifier (a word that describes) should sit beside the thing it describes, or readers will attach it to the wrong thing.

Examples (3)
  1. Before

    She found a ring in the parking lot that was made of gold.

    After

    She found a gold ring in the parking lot.

    Why: The first version says the parking lot was made of gold.

  2. Before

    The coach, after a long and heated argument with the referee about the offside call in the second half, was ejected.

    After

    After a long, heated argument with the referee about the second-half offside call, the coach was ejected.

    Why: The subject “coach” and its verb “was ejected” were twenty words apart.

  3. Before

    I almost failed every quiz this semester.

    After

    I failed almost every quiz this semester.

    Why: These mean different things. “Almost failed” means you passed. “Almost every” means you failed most of them.

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Composition 10

In summaries, keep to one tense

When you summarize a book, a play, or an article, use the present tense the whole way through: “Hamlet hesitates.” Switching between past and present confuses the reader about what happened when.

Examples (3)
  1. Before

    Lennie grabs the puppy too hard and it died. Then George finds out.

    After

    Lennie grabs the puppy too hard, and it dies. Then George finds out.

    Why: Present tense throughout.

  2. Before

    The author argued that homework should be limited, and she says that sleep matters more.

    After

    The author argues that homework should be limited and says that sleep matters more.

    Why: One tense for the whole summary.

  3. Before

    In the second act, the sisters fought about the inheritance. In the third act, they make up.

    After

    In the second act, the sisters fight about the inheritance. In the third act, they make up.

    Why: Both acts are described in the present.

Practice this rule →
Composition 11

Place the emphatic words of a sentence at the end

The end of a sentence is the spot the reader remembers. Put the word or idea you most want to land there. Move throwaway phrases (“according to,” “in my view,” “however”) to the front or the middle.

Examples (3)
  1. Before

    The team won the championship for the first time in school history, according to the announcer.

    After

    According to the announcer, the team won the championship for the first time in school history.

    Why: End on “school history,” not on the announcer.

  2. Before

    Steel is the most important material in modern construction, in my view.

    After

    In modern construction, the most important material is steel.

    Why: The sentence is about steel. End on steel.

  3. Before

    She had never lost a race before that day, however.

    After

    Before that day, she had never lost a race.

    Why: “However” is the weakest word in the sentence. Do not give it the last word.

Practice this rule →
Chapter III

An Approach to Style

The habits of a writer who respects the reader. Less mechanical than the first two chapters and more about judgment.

Style 1

Place yourself in the background

Write so the reader notices your subject, not you. Cut “I think,” “I feel,” and “in my opinion” unless the assignment asks for them. Style shows up on its own when you focus on saying the thing clearly.

Examples (3)
  1. Before

    I personally feel, and I think most people would agree with me, that the school day starts too early.

    After

    The school day starts too early. First period begins at 7:20, before most teenagers are awake.

    Why: The fact makes the argument. The writer does not need to stand in front of it.

  2. Before

    As I will now demonstrate, the poem uses three images of water.

    After

    The poem uses three images of water.

    Why: Just demonstrate it.

  3. Before

    I was really impressed by how the author, in what I consider a genius move, ends the chapter mid-sentence.

    After

    The chapter ends mid-sentence, leaving the reader as stranded as the narrator.

    Why: Describe what the author did and what it does to the reader.

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Style 2

Write in a way that comes naturally

Use words and sentence shapes you would use out loud to a smart friend. Do not imitate a writer you admire or try to “sound like an essay.” Stiff, formal language is a costume, and readers can tell.

Examples (3)
  1. Before

    It is incumbent upon the reader to peruse the aforementioned text with alacrity.

    After

    Read the chapter carefully.

    Why: Nobody talks like the first sentence. Nobody should write like it either.

  2. Before

    Upon the culmination of the sporting event, the participants proceeded to the locker facility.

    After

    After the game, the players went to the locker room.

    Why: Plain words, same meaning, half the length.

  3. Before

    This essay will endeavor to illuminate the multifaceted dimensions of friendship.

    After

    This essay is about what makes a friendship last.

    Why: Say what the essay is about the way you would say it to a friend.

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Style 3

Work from a suitable design

This repeats Composition 1 on purpose: plan before you write. Know how long the piece will be and what each part must do. A plan you made in five minutes saves an hour of rewriting.

Examples (3)
  1. Before

    Starting a five-paragraph essay by writing the introduction and hoping the rest shows up.

    After

    Writing the thesis and the three topic sentences first, then filling in each paragraph.

    Why: With the skeleton in place, every paragraph has a job.

  2. Before

    A speech with no planned ending, so it trails off with “so, yeah.”

    After

    Writing the last line first, then building the speech that earns it.

    Why: Know where you are going before you start walking.

  3. Before

    A lab conclusion that repeats the whole procedure.

    After

    A conclusion that answers the question the purpose section asked, in two or three sentences.

    Why: Each section has one job. The conclusion’s job is to answer.

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Style 4

Write with nouns and verbs

Nouns and verbs carry the sentence. Adjectives and adverbs can help, but a precise noun or verb beats a weak one propped up with modifiers.

Examples (3)
  1. Before

    He walked slowly and tiredly across the very big field.

    After

    He trudged across the field.

    Why: “Trudged” contains “slowly,” “tiredly,” and the effort of the big field.

  2. Before

    The extremely loud, very sudden noise made everyone very scared.

    After

    The blast sent everyone under their desks.

    Why: One strong noun and one strong verb replace five modifiers.

  3. Before

    She spoke really quietly and nervously.

    After

    She whispered.

    Why: The right verb needs no adverb.

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Style 5

Revise and rewrite

A first draft is for finding out what you think. Good writing happens in the second and third passes. Cutting, reordering, and starting a paragraph over are normal, not a sign that something went wrong.

Examples (3)
  1. Before

    There are many reasons why I think that the school should have a later start time, and in this essay I will explain some of them.

    After

    The school should start an hour later. Here are three reasons.

    Why: The first draft clears its throat for 27 words. The revision starts.

  2. Before

    The character of Jem changes a lot over the course of the novel in a lot of ways that are important to the story.

    After

    Jem grows up over the course of the novel, and the story turns on that change.

    Why: The revision says what the change is and why it matters.

  3. Before

    In conclusion, as I have shown, the evidence proves that my thesis is correct.

    After

    The numbers point one way: schools that start later report higher attendance and fewer tardies.

    Why: End on the strongest fact, not on a sentence about the essay.

Practice this rule →
Style 6

Do not overwrite

Rich, flowery, over-decorated prose is hard to read. If a sentence sounds like it is trying to impress, simplify it. Readers trust plain sentences.

Examples (3)
  1. Before

    The golden orb of the sun sank majestically beneath the shimmering, azure horizon as the day breathed its final, weary sigh.

    After

    The sun set.

    Why: Everything in the first version is decoration. The reader wanted to know it got dark.

  2. Before

    Her heart, a fragile bird trapped in the cage of her ribs, fluttered with the exquisite agony of anticipation.

    After

    She was nervous.

    Why: One plain sentence tells the reader more than the bird does.

  3. Before

    The tantalizing aroma of freshly baked, mouthwateringly delicious cookies wafted enticingly through the air.

    After

    The kitchen smelled like cookies.

    Why: Everyone knows what cookies smell like. Say “cookies” and trust the reader.

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Style 7

Do not overstate

One exaggeration makes the reader doubt everything else you say. Say exactly how much, and let the fact do the work.

Examples (3)
  1. Before

    This is the most important issue facing humanity, and everyone knows it.

    After

    Traffic near the school is a daily safety problem: three students were hit in the crosswalk last year.

    Why: The number does more than “most important” ever could.

  2. Before

    The book is literally the best thing ever written.

    After

    The book is the best novel I read this year.

    Why: A claim you can defend beats a claim nobody can.

  3. Before

    Everyone in the entire school hates the new schedule.

    After

    Most students I talked to dislike the new schedule.

    Why: “Everyone” is almost never true, and the reader knows it.

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Style 8
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Avoid the use of qualifiers

Words like very, rather, pretty, little, quite, kind of, and sort of drain the strength from the word they attach to. Cut them, or pick a stronger word that does not need help.

Examples (3)
  1. Before

    The test was pretty hard and I was kind of nervous.

    After

    The test was hard, and I was nervous.

    Why: “Pretty” and “kind of” make the writer sound unsure.

  2. Before

    It was a very cold day, and the wind was rather strong.

    After

    It was ten degrees, and the wind blew hats off heads.

    Why: Replace the qualifiers with facts.

  3. Before

    She is a little bit upset about the grade.

    After

    She is upset about the grade.

    Why: “A little bit” is filler.

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Style 9

Do not affect a breezy manner

Do not force a chatty, jokey tone to seem relaxed. Forced casualness reads as trying too hard. Be direct instead; that is what relaxed writing looks like.

Examples (3)
  1. Before

    So yeah, the Civil War, am I right? Crazy stuff, folks. Let’s dive in!

    After

    The Civil War began in 1861 for reasons that had been building for decades.

    Why: The second sentence is confident. The first is nervous.

  2. Before

    Okay so this book was a total rollercoaster, no cap, and the main guy? A whole mess.

    After

    The main character makes one bad decision after another, and the novel follows the consequences.

    Why: Say what happens in the book.

  3. Before

    Well, well, well, look who finally showed up in chapter 3: our old friend, symbolism!

    After

    Symbolism first appears in chapter 3.

    Why: The joke costs twelve words and delivers no information.

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Style 10

Use orthodox spelling

Spell words the standard way. Text-message spellings and shortcuts belong in texts, not in essays.

Examples (3)
  1. Before

    We walked thru the park at nite.

    After

    We walked through the park at night.

    Why: “Thru” and “nite” are text spellings.

  2. Before

    Ur essay needs 2 be done b4 class.

    After

    Your essay needs to be done before class.

    Why: Spell every word out.

  3. Before

    The results were alot better than expected, altho we didn’t know why.

    After

    The results were a lot better than expected, although we didn’t know why.

    Why: “A lot” is two words. “Altho” is not a word.

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Style 11

Do not explain too much

Trust the reader. In dialogue, “said” is almost always enough; an adverb after it (“she said angrily”) tells readers what the words should already show. In essays, do not restate a point you just made.

Examples (3)
  1. Before

    “Get out,” she said angrily, furious at him.

    After

    “Get out,” she said.

    Why: The words already show the anger.

  2. Before

    “I guess I’ll go,” he said reluctantly, not really wanting to leave.

    After

    “I guess I’ll go,” he said. He didn’t move.

    Why: An action shows reluctance better than an adverb tells it.

  3. Before

    The author uses a dark, stormy setting to create a scary mood. This means the setting makes the reader feel scared. The scary feeling comes from the setting.

    After

    The author’s stormy setting makes the reader uneasy.

    Why: Three sentences say one thing. Say it once.

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Style 12

Do not construct awkward adverbs

Do not force -ly onto words that do not take it. If the adverb sounds invented, rewrite the sentence around a verb or a noun.

Examples (3)
  1. Before

    He answered the question tiredly and overwhelmedly.

    After

    He answered the question with a tired shrug.

    Why: “Overwhelmedly” is not a word anyone says.

  2. Before

    The crowd cheered thunderingly.

    After

    The crowd’s cheer shook the bleachers.

    Why: Let a verb do the work.

  3. Before

    She looked at me friendlily.

    After

    She gave me a friendly look.

    Why: “Friendly” resists -ly. Use it as an adjective.

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Style 13

Make sure the reader knows who is speaking

In dialogue, the reader must always know who said what. Start a new paragraph for each new speaker, and add a tag (“Mom said”) whenever there is any chance of confusion.

Examples (3)
  1. Before

    “Did you finish?” “Almost.” “Almost isn’t done.” “I know.” “Then finish.”

    After

    “Did you finish?” Mom asked. “Almost.” “Almost isn’t done,” she said. “I know.” “Then finish.”

    Why: Two tags in five lines keep the reader oriented without slowing the exchange.

  2. Before

    “Let’s leave.” Jake and Priya both looked at the door. “Not yet.”

    After

    “Let’s leave,” Jake said. Priya looked at the door. “Not yet.”

    Why: Putting Priya’s action and her line in the same paragraph shows she is the one speaking.

  3. Before

    The coach said practice was moved, and the captain said it wasn’t, and he said he’d check.

    After

    Coach said practice was moved. The captain said it wasn’t. Coach said he would check.

    Why: Two “he”s in one sentence. Which one checked?

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Style 14

Avoid fancy words

Use the plain word. Big words do not make writing smarter; they make it slower.

Examples (3)
  1. Before

    We will utilize the facility to commence the experiment.

    After

    We will use the lab to start the experiment.

    Why: “Utilize” is “use.” “Commence” is “start.”

  2. Before

    He endeavored to ascertain the whereabouts of his domicile.

    After

    He tried to find out where his house was.

    Why: Four fancy words, four plain replacements.

  3. Before

    Please facilitate the dissemination of this information to your peers.

    After

    Please tell your classmates.

    Why: Same request, one-third the length.

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Style 15

Do not use dialect unless your ear is good

Writing how people “sound,” with dropped letters and respelled words, is hard to do well and easy to make unreadable or insulting. If a character speaks a certain way, use a light touch: word choice and rhythm, not respelled words.

Examples (3)
  1. Before

    “Ah’m gonna git mah stuff an’ go on ovah thar,” he said.

    After

    “I’m going to get my things and head over there,” he said, in the slow way he had.

    Why: One phrase about how he talks does more than eight respelled words.

  2. Before

    “Yous guys wanna come wit me to da store?”

    After

    “You guys coming to the store or what?”

    Why: One idiom carries the voice. Respelled words distract.

  3. Before

    Grandma’s note was written in her accent, every word respelled: “Ah hope y’all’re doin’ fahn.”

    After

    Grandma’s note read the way she talked: “I hope y’all are doing fine, honey, and eating.”

    Why: One “y’all” and one “honey” do the work.

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Style 16

Be clear

Clarity is the whole point. If a sentence can be misread, it will be. Muddy sentences do not sound deep; they sound muddy.

Examples (3)
  1. Before

    The teacher told the student that he had made a mistake.

    After

    The teacher admitted to the student that she had made a mistake.

    Why: Who made the mistake? The first sentence cannot say. The second can.

  2. Before

    Students who miss class often fail.

    After

    Students who often miss class fail.

    Why: “Often” could belong to “miss” or to “fail.” Put it where you mean it.

  3. Before

    The essay’s argument, while in some respects and to a certain degree valid, nonetheless fails to fully account for the many considerations that might be raised.

    After

    The essay’s argument ignores two objections: cost and time.

    Why: Name the objections. The reader cannot picture “many considerations.”

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Style 17

Do not inject opinion

Unless the assignment asks for your opinion, keep it out. A judgment dropped into a factual piece (“which is ridiculous”) makes the reader trust the facts less.

Examples (3)
  1. Before

    The Senate passed the bill, which was obviously a terrible idea.

    After

    The Senate passed the bill 52 to 48.

    Why: Report the vote. Let the reader judge.

  2. Before

    The plants under the blue light grew faster, which I thought was cool.

    After

    The plants under the blue light grew three centimeters taller in two weeks.

    Why: The measurement is the finding. Your reaction is not.

  3. Before

    Gatsby throws huge parties, which is honestly pathetic.

    After

    Gatsby throws huge parties in the hope that Daisy will walk in.

    Why: Explaining why he does it is analysis. Calling it pathetic is a verdict.

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Style 18

Use figures of speech sparingly

A figure of speech is a comparison (a metaphor or simile) or an image standing in for a plain statement. One good one lands. Several in a row pile up, and mixing them makes the sentence silly.

Examples (3)
  1. Before

    We have to grab the bull by the horns and sail into uncharted waters before the ship sails.

    After

    We have to act now.

    Why: A bull, an ocean, and a ship in one sentence. None of them survives.

  2. Before

    Her voice was a river, a bell, a knife, a blanket on a cold night.

    After

    Her voice was a blanket on a cold night.

    Why: Keep the best one.

  3. Before

    The exam was a mountain, a beast, a marathon, and a nightmare rolled into one.

    After

    The exam ran three hours and covered every chapter.

    Why: The facts are scarier than the metaphors.

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Style 19

Do not take shortcuts at the cost of clarity

Abbreviations, symbols, and initials save keystrokes and cost readers. Spell things out unless the short form is one everybody knows.

Examples (3)
  1. Before

    The MC’s POV shifts in ch. 4 b/c of the flashback.

    After

    The main character’s point of view shifts in chapter 4 because of the flashback.

    Why: Four shortcuts in one sentence. Each one makes the reader stop.

  2. Before

    Temp went from 20° to 35° in 10 min w/ no change in vol.

    After

    The temperature rose from 20 to 35 degrees Celsius in ten minutes with no change in volume.

    Why: Lab notes can be terse. A lab report should not be.

  3. Before

    GDP, CPI & PPI all rose per the BLS.

    After

    According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, gross domestic product and both major price indexes rose.

    Why: Spell out initials the first time, or avoid them.

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Style 20

Avoid foreign languages

Write in English. A foreign phrase dropped in to sound sophisticated usually reads as showing off, and some readers will not know it.

Examples (3)
  1. Before

    The villain is, per se, the raison d’être of the plot.

    After

    The villain is the reason the plot exists.

    Why: Plain English says it faster.

  2. Before

    Her modus operandi vis-à-vis homework was to wait until the last minute.

    After

    Her method with homework was to wait until the last minute.

    Why: Two Latin and French phrases replaced by two English words.

  3. Before

    The team’s joie de vivre made the long bus rides bearable.

    After

    The team’s good spirits made the long bus rides bearable.

    Why: “Good spirits” is what you would say out loud.

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Style 21

Prefer the standard to the offbeat

Slang and trendy words date fast and mean different things to different readers. In formal writing, use the standard word. Save slang for dialogue, where it can show who a character is.

Examples (3)
  1. Before

    The protagonist is lowkey the villain, and the plot twist is fire.

    After

    The protagonist is quietly the villain, and the plot twist works.

    Why: “Lowkey” and “fire” will read as dated in five years, and a teacher may not read them at all.

  2. Before

    The general’s strategy was a total vibe shift for the army.

    After

    The general’s strategy changed the army’s morale.

    Why: “Morale” is the standard word for what “vibe” is reaching for.

  3. Before

    Prioritization-wise, the colonists were more focused on survival than governance.

    After

    The colonists cared more about survival than about government.

    Why: Adding “-wise” to a noun makes an offbeat word. Rewrite around it.

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Practice

Train your ear

Two games, drawn from the examples in the rules. Every answer shows which rule was in play, so a miss still teaches something.

Check a draft

Paste your writing

The checker looks for the habits these rules warn about: filler phrases, passive voice, qualifiers, vague words, comma splices, and more. It is a set of pattern matches, not a teacher; treat every mark as a question, not a verdict.

Runs in your browser. Nothing is sent anywhere.
Checklist

Before you turn it in

Read your draft once for each line. Check the box when you have looked, not when you think it is probably fine. The boxes remember themselves on this device.

0 of 13
    Cheat sheet

    All 43 rules on one page

    Print it and keep it next to the laptop. Click any rule to read it with examples.

    Elementary Rules of Usage

    1. 1Form the possessive singular of nouns by adding ’s
    2. 2In a series of three or more, put a comma after every item except the last
    3. 3Enclose parenthetic expressions between commas
    4. 4Place a comma before a conjunction introducing an independent clause
    5. 5Do not join independent clauses with a comma
    6. 6Do not break sentences in two
    7. 7Use a colon after an independent clause to introduce a list, an appositive, an amplification, or a quotation
    8. 8Use a dash to set off an abrupt break or interruption, or to announce a long appositive or summary
    9. 9The number of the subject determines the number of the verb
    10. 10Use the proper case of pronoun
    11. 11A participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence must refer to the grammatical subject

    Elementary Principles of Composition

    1. 1Choose a suitable design and hold to it
    2. 2Make the paragraph the unit of composition: one paragraph to each topic
    3. 3Use the active voice
    4. 4Put statements in positive form
    5. 5Use definite, specific, concrete language
    6. 6Omit needless words
    7. 7Avoid a succession of loose sentences
    8. 8Express coordinate ideas in similar form
    9. 9Keep related words together
    10. 10In summaries, keep to one tense
    11. 11Place the emphatic words of a sentence at the end

    An Approach to Style

    1. 1Place yourself in the background
    2. 2Write in a way that comes naturally
    3. 3Work from a suitable design
    4. 4Write with nouns and verbs
    5. 5Revise and rewrite
    6. 6Do not overwrite
    7. 7Do not overstate
    8. 8Avoid the use of qualifiers
    9. 9Do not affect a breezy manner
    10. 10Use orthodox spelling
    11. 11Do not explain too much
    12. 12Do not construct awkward adverbs
    13. 13Make sure the reader knows who is speaking
    14. 14Avoid fancy words
    15. 15Do not use dialect unless your ear is good
    16. 16Be clear
    17. 17Do not inject opinion
    18. 18Use figures of speech sparingly
    19. 19Do not take shortcuts at the cost of clarity
    20. 20Avoid foreign languages
    21. 21Prefer the standard to the offbeat
    FAQ

    Common questions

    Quick answers about the rules, the tools on this page, and how your writing is handled.

    What is The Elements of Style?

    The Elements of Style is a short guide to clear writing first published by William Strunk Jr. in 1918. It states a small set of rules for grammar, sentence construction, and style. Check Your Style explains those rules in plain language with before-and-after examples.

    How many rules are in The Elements of Style?

    This site presents 43 rules: 11 elementary rules of usage, 11 principles of composition, and 21 reminders on style. Each rule has a plain-language explanation and three before-and-after examples.

    What are the three parts of The Elements of Style?

    The first part covers elementary rules of usage, such as punctuation and agreement. The second covers principles of composition, such as using the active voice and omitting needless words. The third is a set of reminders on style, such as writing with nouns and verbs and avoiding qualifiers.

    What does “omit needless words” mean?

    “Omit needless words” means every word should do a job; cut phrases that add nothing. For example, “due to the fact that” becomes “because,” and “he is a person who never gives up” becomes “he never gives up.” It is one of Strunk's best-known rules of composition.

    How do I fix passive voice in an essay?

    Find the real doer of the action and make it the subject of the sentence. “The winning goal was scored by Maya” becomes “Maya scored the winning goal.” Paste your draft into the Check a draft tab and the checker highlights likely passive voice so you can rewrite each sentence.

    What is a comma splice and how do I fix it?

    A comma splice is two complete sentences joined by only a comma, such as “The bell rang, everyone rushed out.” Fix it with a period, a semicolon, or a comma plus a conjunction: “The bell rang, and everyone rushed out.” The draft checker flags likely comma splices for you to review.

    What is the difference between active and passive voice?

    In the active voice the subject does the action: “The dog chased the ball.” In the passive voice the subject receives it: “The ball was chased by the dog.” Active writing is usually shorter and clearer, so Strunk's third principle of composition is to use the active voice.

    How do I check my essay before I turn it in?

    Open the Checklist tab and read your draft once for each line: one idea per paragraph, active verbs, needless words cut, vague words made specific, no comma splices, and a few more. You can also paste the draft into the Check a draft tab to flag common problems first.

    Does Check Your Style fix my grammar automatically like Grammarly?

    No, and that is on purpose. Check Your Style is a teaching tool, not an autocorrect. It flags habits that Strunk's rules warn about, links each flag to the rule behind it, and lets you make the fix yourself, so you learn the rule instead of just accepting a change.

    Is Check Your Style free?

    Yes. It is completely free, needs no account, and works on phones and computers.

    Does Check Your Style store my writing?

    No. The page runs entirely in your browser and sends nothing to a server. Your draft stays on your device, and only your saved rules and checklist are kept in your browser's local storage.

    What is the serial (Oxford) comma?

    The serial comma is the comma before the final “and” or “or” in a list of three or more items, as in “a pencil, a calculator, and your ID.” Strunk's second rule of usage keeps it, because it stops the last two items from reading as one.

    What is a dangling modifier?

    A dangling modifier is an opening phrase that describes the wrong noun, as in “Walking into the cafeteria, the smell of pizza hit me,” which says the smell was walking. Fix it by putting the real doer right after the comma: “Walking into the cafeteria, I smelled pizza.”

    Who wrote The Elements of Style, and is it in the public domain?

    William Strunk Jr. wrote the original in 1918, and that edition is in the public domain. Later editions revised by E. B. White are still under copyright. All explanations and examples on Check Your Style are original and are not quoted from any edition.

    Who is Check Your Style for?

    It is built for high-school and college writers, and for anyone who wants clearer academic writing. The explanations are written in plain language for a teenage reader.

    Can teachers use Check Your Style in class?

    Yes. It is free, needs no sign-up, and works on any device, so teachers can link to it, project it, or assign the practice quiz and pre-submission checklist without setting anything up.